Archive:Yaharan language
| Yaharan | |
|---|---|
| Template:Feyandya | |
| Pronunciation | ˈsɪ̈jɑhɑrɑ |
| Region | Lower Boroso |
| Ethnicity | Yaharans |
| Native speakers | 24,000,000 20,000,000 as a second language (2010) |
| Language family | Yaharan
|
| Early forms: | Proto-Yaharan
|
| Dialects | Celebrezstuvan
Ciovergian
Haran
Yervergian
Yitsman
|
| Writing system | Feyandya |
| Official status | |
| Official language in |  Confederation of Lower BorosoTemplate:Country data Upper Yahara Template:Country data Yaxarhayut |
| CWS code | SIH |
Yaharan (IPA: /jəˈhɑːɹɪ̈n/; Yaharan: Template:Feyandya /ˈsɪ̈jɑɦɑɹɑ/) is the only living member of the Greater Yaharan languages. Spoken by over eleven million people, it serves as the official language of the Kingdom of Upper Yahara, one of several of the Confederation of Lower Boroso, and one of the two official languages of the Kingdom of Yaxarhayut. Historically, it was the predominant language of the Empire of Yahara, and as a result has heavily influenced the Monyic languages, Trunaomatian, and Heoroman, amongst others.
History
The history of the Yaharan language begins with its separation as Old Yaharan from Greater Yaharan, which likely happened sometime in the third or fourth century in the region that today comprises Upper Yahara. The language developed and took in several Canagamanese loanwords during this time, as well as passing several words to the Canagamanese. During the opening of the eleventh century, the language came under intense contact with Common Yennodor, resulting in the acceleration of certain shifts within the language as well as a simplification of grammar. With the Empire of Yahara, the language evolved into Imperial Yaharan, which became the language of the Empire itself, spreading through that influence from the Yahara all throughout Lower Boroso, displacing several other Yaharan languages in the process such as Haran. Imperial Yaharan began to transition into Ducal Yaharan, the most varied period of the Yaharan language, around the fifteenth century, and by the seventeenth had broken into several distinct standards. The foremost of these, the Western Yitsman and the Celebrezstuvan standards, by the process of unification in the late seventeenth century and the establishment of both Upper Yahara and Yaxarhayut, became the new standards of the Yaharan language. By the turn of the twentieth century, these standards have firmly eclipsed all but the strongest dialects in a process of dialect levelling.
Phonology
Consonants
| Bilabial | Labio-dental | Dental | Alveolar | Post-alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n nʲ | ŋ | |||||
| Plosive | p b | t tʲ tʷ d dʲ | k kʲ kʷ g | |||||
| Fricative | f v vʲ | θ θʲ | s z | ʃ ʒ | x | ɦ | ||
| Slide | s͢ʃ | |||||||
| Affricate | t͡s | t͡ʃ | ||||||
| Liquid | ʍ w | l ɹ r | j | |||||
Vowels
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i y | ɯ u | |
| Mid | ɛ | ɪ̈ | o |
| Open | ɑ |
Diphthongs: /ɛɪ̯/, /ɑɪ̯/, /jⁱɑʊ̯/
Phonotactics
Yaharan allows for complex syllable onsets and codas, while having a much more restricted set of allowable vowel clusters. In Standard Yaharan, the maximum syllable structure is CCVVNCCC, with a minimum syllable structure of V.
Allowable onsets are defined as the following:
| Analysis: | Sound: | Example: | IPA: |
|---|---|---|---|
| All variants of C alone including /t͡s t͡ʃ ʍ/. | Template:Feyandya | /kɑ/ | |
| CC | /pʲ bʲ tʲ dʲ kʲ θʲ/ | Template:Feyandya | /kʲɑ/ |
| CC | /st sk/ | Template:Feyandya | /stɛn/ |
| CC | /bl bɹ tɹ kɹ/ | Template:Feyandya | /ˈblɑzkɑdʲɑ/ |
Orthography
The Yaharan language is written using the Feyandya, its traditional alphabet. Three forms are used for various purposes: the civil version (most commonly used in signage and printing), the written version (used in both print and handwriting), and the religious version (used almost exclusively for ceremonial purposes and in temple recordkeeping). The written version is that which is presented below.
| Paired consonants: | Unpaired consonants: | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unvoiced letter: | IPA: | Voiced letter: | IPA: | Letter: | IPA: | Letter: | IPA: | |
| Template:Feyandya p | /p/ | b b | /b/ | l ,L l | /l/ | w ,W w1 | /w/ | |
| t t | /t/ | d d | /d/ | y ,Y y | /j/ | č č | /t͡ʃ/ | |
| k k | /k/ | g g | /g/ | Vowels: | ||||
| f | /f/ f2 | v v | /v/ | Long letter: | IPA: | Short letter: | IPA: | |
| s ,S s | /s/ | z z | /z/ | A ,a a | /ɛɪ̯/ | Ä ,ä ä3 | /ɑ/ | |
| š š | /ʃ/ | ž ž | /ʒ/ | O ,o o | /o/ | Ö ,ö ö | /o/ | |
| x x | /x/ | h h | /ɦ/ | U ,u u | /u/ | Ü ,ü ü | /ɯ/ | |
| c c | /s͢ʃ/ | þ ,Þ þ | /θ/ | I ,i i | /ɑɪ̯/ | Í ,í í | /ɪ̈/ | |
| n ,N n | /n/ | m m | /m/ | E ,e e | /i/ | Ë ,ë ë | /ɛ/ | |
| r r | /ɹ/ | ř ř | /r/ | Ø ,ø ø4 | /jⁱɑʊ̯/ | Ÿ ,ÿ ÿ5 | /y/ | |
| Ligatures: | Obsolete letters: | |||||||
| nt nt | /nt/ | nd nd | /nd/ | Æ ,æ æ3 | /ɑ/ | Ï ï | /ɪ̈/ | |
| nk nk | /ŋk/ | ng ng | /ŋg/ | Á ,á á | /Ø/ | É ,é é | /Ø/ | |
| ď dyä | /dʲɑ/ | ḳ stk | /stk/ | Required ideograms: | ||||
| ǒ ös | /os/ | As a ligature for the word ös. | Ideogram: | Meaning: | ||||
| ň níl | /nɪ̈l/ | As a ligature for the word níl. | ǽ Æšé | "Ashe" | ||||
| 1. Optional word finally after Template:Feyandya u, depending on style and region. 2. Sometimes left unwritten word finally, as the letter is not pronounced word finally. 3. Imperial style written Template:Feyandya æ. 4. Imperial style written Template:Feyandya öö, Ducal style written Template:Feyandya yäu or Template:Feyandya yäw. 5. Imperial style written Template:Feyandya öy. | ||||||||
Stress
Stress is always word initial, and acts phonetically to distinguish between word segments, as well as holding a grammatical function in distinguishing between the accusative and reflexive functions of reflexive pronouns. In sentences containing strings of more than one monosyllabic word, stress is placed on the foremost monosyllable, and the following monosyllables are said as if they were part of the same word as the original monosyllable up to three words, at which point stress is placed on the next monosyllable.
- For example:
Template:Feyandya Ud täng omng, tyung dän nrät ös lön. ˈud‿ tɑŋg‿ omŋg ˈtʲuŋg‿ dɑn‿ nɹɑt ˈos‿ lon at DEF.FORM.FEM beginning_of_the_universe DEF.FORM.MASC god of all 'At the beginning of the universe, there was the god of all.'
Grammar
Word order
Word order in Yaharan is generally SVO, with exceptions for poetic use and a few, significant, constructions. Notably, when using the accusative form of a pronoun, the word order changes to SOV. Adjectives will always precede the noun or verb they describe.
Nouns
Nouns in Yaharan are split into three classes based on the last sound of the word. These classes determine the definite and indefinite articles, and are summarized below:
| Class: | Definite article: | Indefinite article: | Last sound of word: | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine: | {tëmë} tëmë | {dänß} dän | {šä} šä | {cßdßďßËßgßhßnßOßÖßpßřßsßšßtßþßvßxß} -c, -d, -dyä, -ë, -g, -h, -n, -o, -ö, -p, -ř, -s, -š, -t, -þ, -v, -x | |
| Feminine: | {täng} täng | {AßÄßbßčßeßfßißíßkßlßmßrßußüßwßÿßzßžß} -a, -ä, -b, -č, -e, -f, -i, -í, -k, -l, -m, -r, -u, -ü, -w, -ÿ -z, -ž | |||
| Plural: | {þuwß} þuw | {šä} šä | {šuwß} šuw | Ø -ø | |
Further, nouns decline for the genitive, plural, and genitive plural, again based on final sound.
| Last sound of word: | Singular genitive: | Plural: | Plural genitive: |
|---|---|---|---|
| {aßÄßeßëßißíßoßößußüßÿß} -a, -ä, -e, -ë, -i, -í, -o, -ö, -u, -ü, -ÿ | dä -dä | Ø -ø | Øšä -øšä |
| {cßčßfßsßšßþßvßhwßxßzßžß} -c, -č, -f, -s, -š, -þ, -v, –w, -x, -z, -ž | dä -dä | dø -dø | døšä -døšä |
| {dßgßkßlßmßnßpßrßřßtßwßøß} -d, -f, -k, -l, -m, -n, -p, -r, -ř, -t, -w, -ø | šä -šä | šø -šø | šøšä -šøšä |
Pronouns
Pronouns are distinguished by person, partially by number, and function. Almost all are able to decline to four cases: the intransitive, transitive, reflexive, and genitive.
| Intransitive: | Transitive: | Reflexive: | Genitive: | English equivalent: | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1S | {ësto} ësto | {sít} sít | {ëtS} ëts | {ësta} {ëstä} ësta1, ëstä | "I" |
| 1P | {yënto} yënto | {yën} yën | {utS} uts | {yëntä} yëntä | "we" |
| 2S | {eṡlí} elí | {lít} lít | {ätS} äts | {lítšä} lítšä | "you" |
| 2P | {lítšø} lítšø | {lítšøšä} lítšøšä | "you all" | ||
| 3SI | {yënto} híst | {ÿtS} ÿts | {hístšä} hístšä | "it" | |
| 3SA | {hístä} hístä | {sä} sä | {otS} ots | {hístädä} hístädä | "he/she" |
| 3P | {þanto} þanto | {þan} þan | {ötS} öts | {þantä} þantä | "they" |
| 1. The form {ësta} ësta is used only as an emphatic. | |||||
| Intransitive: | Transitive: | Reflexive: | English equivalent: | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| INAN | {erø} erø | {røt} røt | {ütS} üts | "which/that" |
| AN | {nícto} nícto | {níc} níc | "who/which" |
The reflexive case, while serving those purposes as well, also functions as an accusative. When used as a reflexive, the pronoun is prefixed to the verb, and when used as an accusative is placed before the verb, but is not prefixed to it.
The transitive/intransitive cases 'hardset' the transitivity of the verb. While verbs have an inherent transitivity, the use of a transitive pronoun on a, say, intransitive verb will set the verb's transitivity to the transitive.
- For example, where there is no pronoun, the inherent transitivity of the verb holds:
- {tsoni.}
Tsoni.
act-3A.PRES
'He acts.'
- When a pronoun of the same transitivity is employed, it reinforces that transitivity:
- {hístä tsoni.}
Hístä
3A.INTR
tsoni.
act-3A.PRES
'He acts.'
- However, when a pronoun of the opposite transitivity is employed, it enforces that transitivity onto the verb:
- {sä tsoni.}
Sä
3A.TR
tsoni.
act-3A.PRES
'He acts [upon it].'
- Likewise, this holds true for relative pronouns, compare:
- {ëts nívílänog kätäng erø cäkäyø.}
Ëts
1S.ACC
nívílänog
give-3A.PAST
kätäng
wood
erø
REL.INTR
cäkäyø.
burn-3I.PRES
'He gave me the wood which is burning.'
- {ëts nívílänog kätäng røt cäkäyø.}
Ëts
1S.ACC
nívílänog
give-3A.PAST
kätäng
wood
røt
REL.TR
cäkäyø.
burn-3I.PRES
'He gave me the wood which burns [other things].'
Preverbal Particles
Yaharan preverbal particles are various words which affect the meaning, tone, or content of the question and are bound to the immediate position preceding the verb, while not being prefixed to the verb. This category of word includes question words, and the most common of the preverbal particles are exampled below.
| Yaharan: | Meaning: | Example: |
|---|---|---|
| Template:Feyandya | Expresses emotion or emphasis. | Template:Feyandya Kä EMPH ÿbëlø'řä want-3SI.PRES-DIST wÿnd! bread 'It wants that bread!' |
| Template:Feyandya | Expresses strong emotion or emphasis. | Template:Feyandya Käluw EMPH ÿbëlø'řä want-3SI.PRES-DIST wÿnd! bread 'It wants that bread!!!' |
| Template:Feyandya | Negates the verb. | Template:Feyandya Níl NEG ÿbëlø'řä want-3SI.PRES-DIST wÿnd. bread 'It does not want that bread.' |
| Template:Feyandya | Forms a question. | Template:Feyandya Ö INTERR ÿbëlø'řä want-3SI.PRES-DIST wÿnd? bread 'Does it want that bread?' |
| Template:Feyandya | Expresses unusuality. | Template:Feyandya Řa NUSIT ÿbëlø'řä want-3SI.PRES-DIST wÿnd! bread 'It wants that bread? [How odd.]' |
| Template:Feyandya | Expresses certainty or veracity. | Template:Feyandya Žov VER ÿbëlø'řä want-3SI.PRES-DIST wÿnd. bread 'It really does want that bread.' |
| Interrogatives: | ||
| Template:Feyandya | who | Template:Feyandya Hístä 3SA.INTR níct who zërn? be-3SA.PRES 'Who is he?' |
| Template:Feyandya | what | Template:Feyandya Hístä 3SA.INTR dzä what hwÿo? do-3SA.PRES 'What is he doing?' |
| Template:Feyandya | where | Template:Feyandya Sä 3SA.TR räa where þöro? go_to-3SA.PRES 'Where is he going?' |
| Template:Feyandya | when | Template:Feyandya Hístä 3SA.INTR erë when säšäk? wake_up-3SA.FUT 'When will he wake up?' |
| Template:Feyandya | why | Template:Feyandya Sä 3SA.TR värë why hwÿog? do-3SA.PAST 'Why did he do [that to that]?' |
| Template:Feyandya | how | Template:Feyandya Lít 2.TR të how äv COND yísnä make-2.PRES wÿnd? bread 'How do you make bread?' |
Adjectives and adverbs
Adjectives always preface the word they describe, falling after any determiners also attached to the word. Adverbs do not exist as a separate class in Yaharan, being instead adjectives placed before the verb. When used in sequence to describe a noun, the adjectives are generally glued together with the infix Template:Feyandya, as without the infix they will generally be interpreted as a string of cascading descriptors.
- Adjective placement when describing a noun:
Dyälrä
DIST
tädyä
answer
zërn
be-3.PRES
tëmë
DET.NFORM
idëtë
good-SUPL
tädyä.
answer
'That is the best answer.'
- Adjective placement when describing a verb:
Wÿn
bird
xí
loud
sängo
sing-3SA.PRES
är
in
oþär.
tree
'The bird sings loudly in the tree.'
- Use of multiple adjectives:
- Cascading descriptors:
Durn
bright
ëløin
blue
wÿn
bird
xí
loud
sängo.
sing-3SA.PRES
'The bright blue bird sings loudly.'
- Noun-describing only:
Dornëløin
big-and-blue
wÿn
bird
xí
loud
sängo.
sing-3SA.PRES
'The big, blue bird sings loudly.'
Verbs
Verbs are grouped into three categories: first, second, and third conjugation verbs. They conjugate according to person, number, and three tenses, a few moods, and so forth.
First Conjugation
| Impersonal forms: | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infinitive: | Template:Feyandya "to create" |
Template:Feyandya "to eat" | ||||
| Subjunctive: | Template:Feyandya "[in order to] create" |
Template:Feyandya "[in order to] eat" | ||||
| Indefinite: | Template:Feyandya "create" |
Template:Feyandya "eat" | ||||
| Imperative: | Template:Feyandya "Create!" |
Template:Feyandya "Eat!" | ||||
| Personal forms: | ||||||
| Present tense: | Past tense: | Future tense: | ||||
| 1S | Template:Feyandya "I create" |
Template:Feyandya "I eat" |
Template:Feyandya "I created" |
Template:Feyandya "I ate" |
Template:Feyandya "I shall create" |
Template:Feyandya "I shall eat" |
| 1P | Template:Feyandya "We create" |
Template:Feyandya "We eat" |
Template:Feyandya "We created" |
Template:Feyandya "We ate" |
Template:Feyandya "We shall create" |
Template:Feyandya "We shall eat" |
| 2 | Template:Feyandya "You create" |
Template:Feyandya "You eat" |
Template:Feyandya "You created" |
Template:Feyandya "You ate" |
Template:Feyandya "You shall create" |
Template:Feyandya "You shall eat" |
| 3SA | Template:Feyandya "One creates" |
Template:Feyandya "One eats" |
Template:Feyandya "One created" |
Template:Feyandya "One ate" |
Template:Feyandya "One shall create" |
Template:Feyandya "One shall eat" |
| 3I | Template:Feyandya "It creates" |
Template:Feyandya "It eats" |
Template:Feyandya "It created" |
Template:Feyandya "It ate" |
Template:Feyandya "It shall create" |
Template:Feyandya "It shall eat" |
| 3PA | Template:Feyandya "They create" |
Template:Feyandya "They eat" |
Template:Feyandya "They created" |
Template:Feyandya "They ate" |
Template:Feyandya "They shall create" |
Template:Feyandya "They shall eat" |
| Moods: | ||||||
| Conditional: | Template:Feyandya "would create" |
Template:Feyandya "would eat" | ||||
| Abilitative: | Template:Feyandya "can create" |
Template:Feyandya "can eat" | ||||
| Potential: | Template:Feyandya "could create" |
Template:Feyandya "could eat" | ||||
Second Conjugation
Third Conjugation
Irregular Conjugations
Infinitive
The infinitive is the dictionary form of Yaharan verbs, and is used, as in English, to act as the verbal noun. It is not used to complete verbal phrases, however.
- For example:
Ëstkëř
err-INF
zërn
be.3I
zërnël
be-INF
šä
INDEF
čívunhäyär.
human
'To err is to be human'
Subjunctive
The subjunctive is of very limited use in Yaharan, being found mostly in the situation where, in English, is often found the phrase in order to, or such can be inserted. It will almost always be preceded by the conjunction Template:Feyandya.
Älkäan
drive-1S.PRES
vädyä
through
sívuw
snow
eš
thus
köunäš
go-SBJV
vërk
to
yëdë.
store
'I drive through the snow to go to the store.'