Difference between revisions of "Qgam Dzwo"
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===Consonants=== | ===Consonants=== | ||
{| | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | ||
! style="width: 68px; "| | ! style="width: 68px; "| | ||
! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial | ! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial | ||
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar | ! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar | ||
! style="width: 68px; " |Post-alveolar | ! style="width: 68px; " |Post-alveolar | ||
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! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal | ! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal | ||
! style="width: 68px; " |Velar | ! style="width: 68px; " |Velar | ||
! style="width: 68px; " |Glottal | ! style="width: 68px; " |Glottal | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Nasal | ! style="" |Nasal | ||
| m | | m | ||
| n | | n | ||
| | | | ||
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| | | | ||
| ŋ | | ŋ | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Plosive | ! style="" |Plosive | ||
| p b | | p b | ||
| t d | | t d | ||
| | | | ||
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| | | | ||
| k g | | k g | ||
| ʔ | | ʔ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Fricative | ! style="" |Fricative | ||
| | | | ||
| s | | s | ||
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| ç | | ç | ||
| x | | x | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Affricate | ! style="" |Affricate | ||
| | | | ||
| d͡z | | d͡z | ||
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| | | | ||
| k͡x | | k͡x | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Approximant | ! style="" |Approximant | ||
| w | | w | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| ɻ | | ɻ | ||
| j | | j | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Lateral app. | ! style="" |Lateral app. | ||
| | | | ||
| l | | l | ||
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| | | | ||
| ʎ | | ʎ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Vowels=== | ===Vowels=== | ||
{| | Qgam Dzwo has a total of seven vowels: four short vowels (/i ɛ ʌ ɔ/) and three long vowels (/eə̯ wɔə̯ ɑː/), the long forms of /i/ and /ɛ/ both having merged into /eə̯/. | ||
Back vowels undergo allophonic fronting when proceeding the post-alveolar and palatal consonants /ɕ t͡ɕ d͡ʑ ç j ʎ/, resulting in the following changes: | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
! style="sidth: 100px;" | vowel | |||
! style="sidth: 100px;" | non-palatalized | |||
! style="sidth: 100px;" | palatalized | |||
|- | |||
| o | |||
| [ɔ] | |||
| [ɜ] | |||
|- | |||
| wo, uo | |||
| [wɔə ʊə̯] | |||
| [ɨə̯] | |||
|- | |||
| a | |||
| [ʌ] | |||
| [ə] | |||
|- | |||
| aa | |||
| [ɑ:] | |||
| [æ:] | |||
|} | |||
Following is a chart of all phonemic vowels and allophonic vowels and diphthongs resulting from the allophonic processes described above: | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
! style="width: 90px; "| | ! style="width: 90px; "| | ||
! style="width: 90px; " |Front | ! style="width: 90px; " |Front | ||
! style="width: 90px; " |Central | ! style="width: 90px; " |Central | ||
! style="width: 90px; " |Near-back | ! style="width: 90px; " |Near-back | ||
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! style="" |Close | ! style="" |Close | ||
| i (iː) | | i (iː) | ||
| (ɨː)<br>(ɨə̯) (ɨə̯j) (ɨːə̯) | | (ɨː)<br>(ɨə̯) (ɨə̯j) (ɨːə̯) | ||
| | | | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Near-close | ! style="" |Near-close | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
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! style="" |Close-mid | ! style="" |Close-mid | ||
| (eː)<br>(eːj) eə̯ eə̯w | | (eː)<br>(eːj) eə̯ eə̯w | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Mid | ! style="" |Mid | ||
| | | | ||
| (ə) (əː)<br>(əj) (əw) | | (ə) (əː)<br>(əj) (əw) | ||
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! style="" |Open-mid | ! style="" |Open-mid | ||
| ɛ | | ɛ | ||
| (ɜ)<br>(ɜj) | | (ɜ)<br>(ɜj) | ||
| | | | ||
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! style="" |Near-open | ! style="" |Near-open | ||
| (æː)<br>(æːj) (æːw) | | (æː)<br>(æːj) (æːw) | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Open | ! style="" |Open | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
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===Phonotactics=== | ===Phonotactics=== | ||
The maximal allowable syllable is CCCCVC, with few restrictions in the sequence of consonants in the onset, but with a heavily restricted coda. When necessary, continuants may be realized as syllabic, and epenthetic schwas may appear between certain consonants, particulary before /ʔ/ when it appears at the beginning of an utterance or between two other stops. | |||
The syllable neucleus must take one and only one vowel. | |||
The coda may be one of five consonants: /m ŋ w j ɻ/. Some of these coda consonants, particularly /w/ and /j/, merge allophonically with the nucleus vowel, slightly obscurring the phonemic constituents of the rhyme. | |||
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. --> | <!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. --> | ||
===Orthography=== | ===Orthography=== | ||
<!--Explain your conlang's alphabet. Use the International Phonetic Alphabet to describe the sounds of your language. If you are unsure on how to use IPA then visit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet and read up. --> | <!--Explain your conlang's alphabet. Use the International Phonetic Alphabet to describe the sounds of your language. If you are unsure on how to use IPA then visit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet and read up. --> | ||
==Grammar== | ==Grammar== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! {{cs|QGA|𢪽}} | ! {{cs|QGA|𢪽}} | ||
| colspan=3 | ''' | | '''yam'''<br>''desiderative/imminent'' | ||
| '''yaĝ'''<br>''desiderative/imminent'' | |||
| '''yam'''<br>''desiderative/imminent'' | |||
|- | |||
! {{cs|QGA|其}} | |||
| colspan=3 | '''çe'''<br>''dummy/default auxiliary'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan=4 | Modal Auxiliaries | ! colspan=4 | Modal Auxiliaries | ||
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! {{cs|QGA|令}} | ! {{cs|QGA|令}} | ||
| '''cam'''<br>''adhortative ("should")'' | | '''cam'''<br>''adhortative ("should")'' | ||
| ''' | | '''caĝ'''<br>''adhortative ("should")<br>(formal)'' | ||
| '''cam'''<br>''necessitative ("must")'' | | '''cam'''<br>''necessitative ("must")'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
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When auxiliaries of two separate types cooccur, tense/modal auxiliaries come before voice auxiliaries: | When auxiliaries of two separate types cooccur, tense/modal auxiliaries come before voice auxiliaries: | ||
{{cs|QGA| | {{cs|QGA|那木要不被切落}}<br> | ||
'''Qhwam mduo ma jer šraa kar la.'''<br> | '''Qhwam mduo ma jer šraa kar la.'''<br> | ||
here tree NEG must PASS cut fall<br> | |||
''That tree must not be cut down.'' | ''That tree must not be cut down.'' | ||
As auxiliaries of a single class cannot cooccur, instead, the | As auxiliaries of a single class cannot cooccur, instead, the connecting particle {{cs|QGA|而}} '''ay''' is used to link clauses, e.g.: | ||
{{cs|QGA|伊被而允了去}}<br> | {{cs|QGA|伊被而允了去}}<br> | ||
'''Ĝwa šraa ay bluo wea arna.'''<br> | '''Ĝwa šraa ay bluo wea arna.'''<br> | ||
3.SG PASS and CAUS PST leave<br> | |||
''He was forced to leave.'' | ''He was forced to leave.'' | ||
====Main Verbs==== | ====Main Verbs==== | ||
Main verbs occur at the end of a clause and conjugate for certain aspects only. This is accomplished either by means of a prefix or reduplication, depending both on the aspect and the specific auxiliary verb used. | |||
The perfect aspect is marked with the prefix {{cs|QGA|畢}} '''sak-''' (sometimes reduced to '''sk-''' or '''sĝ-'''), e.g.: | |||
*{{cs|QGA|問}} '''tem''' "ask" → {{cs|QGA|畢問}} '''saktem''' | |||
*{{cs|QGA|靠話}} '''orsra''' "declare" → {{cs|QGA|畢靠話}} '''skorsra''' | |||
*{{cs|QGA|有}} '''geaw''' "own" → {{cs|QGA|畢有}} '''sĝgeaw''' | |||
The iterative aspect is marked with the prefix {{cs|QGA|屢}} '''bis-''' (sometimes reduced to '''bs-'''), e.g.: | |||
*{{cs|QGA|住}} '''sa''' "dwell" → {{cs|QGA|屢住}} '''bissa''' | |||
*{{cs|QGA|去}} '''arna''' "leave" → {{cs|QGA|屢去}} '''bsarna''' | |||
The progressive aspect is indicated by an auxiliary for the present tense, but in the past and future tenses, it is instead indicated through reduplication of the main verb, e.g.: | |||
*{{cs|QGA|獲}} '''saa''' "get" → {{cs|QGA|獲獲}} '''saa saa''' | |||
*{{cs|QGA|離跑}} '''rimbaaĝ''' "run away" → {{cs|QGA|離跑離跑}} '''rimbaaĝ rimbaaĝ''' | |||
{{cs|QGA|圭葉得畢去}}<br> | |||
'''Kea Yaw do skarna.'''<br> | |||
Kea Yaw PRES PERF-leave<br> | |||
''Kea Yaw has left.'' | |||
{{cs|QGA|它了刁券券於賣賣}}<br> | |||
'''Ĝwea wiy kyom kyom am ĝea ĝea.'''<br> | |||
3.PL PST/PL ticket ticket ACC sell sell<br> | |||
''They were selling tickets.'' | |||
Adverbs | Adverbs | ||
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===Syntax=== | ===Syntax=== | ||
Qgam Dzwo employs SOV sentence structure, though an auxiliary is required directly after the subject. This split verb system is believed to be a remnant of an older V2 structure, though in modern Qgam, the auxiliary is not required to appear second in the clause. | |||
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. --> | <!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. --> | ||
[[Category:Languages]] | [[Category:Languages]] [[Category:Darknic languages]] [[Category:Qgam]] |
Latest revision as of 01:09, 27 January 2021
Qgam Dzwo | |
---|---|
Qgam Dzwo | |
Pronunciation | [(ə)ʔgʌm d͡zwɔə] |
Ethnicity | Qgam |
Native speakers | 5,201,000 (2017) |
Language family |
|
Dialects | Northern Qgam, Eastern Qgam, Southern Qgam |
Writing system | Qonklese logograms, Qgam script |
Official status | |
Official language in | Qgam |
CWS code | QGA |
Qgam Dzwo (鄭語 [(ə)ʔgʌm d͡zwɔə]) is a Darkinic language spoken primarily in the Democratic Republic of Qgam, where it is recognized as the only official language.
Background
As a Darkinic language, Qgam is most closely related to the Hux Kham language. They began to diverge somewhere around 100 BCE, though frequent contact between Qgam and Hux Kham people during this period led to a great amount of loaning. At the onset of the common era, contact between the two peoples decreased, and Qgam began to diverge further. During this time as the Kingdom of Qgam conquered various Nuar settlements, a considerable number of Nuar loanwords began to enter Qgam, and even some grammatical patterns began to shift. Notably, a definite article developed, as well as some aspectual prefixes on verbs, a feature not present in any other Darkinic language.
During the second millennium CE, a large influx of Qonklese loanwords began to alter the Qgam lexicon. It is estimated that approximately 20% of the Qgam lexicon is of Qonklese origin.
Phonology
The following inventory outlines the pronunciation of Standard Qgam, which is that spoken in Hwam Deaĝ Ruom.
Consonants
Bilabial | Alveolar | Post-alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | ŋ | ||||
Plosive | p b | t d | k g | ʔ | |||
Fricative | s | ɕ | ç | x | |||
Affricate | d͡z | t͡ɕ d͡ʑ | k͡x | ||||
Approximant | w | ɻ | j | ||||
Lateral app. | l | ʎ |
Vowels
Qgam Dzwo has a total of seven vowels: four short vowels (/i ɛ ʌ ɔ/) and three long vowels (/eə̯ wɔə̯ ɑː/), the long forms of /i/ and /ɛ/ both having merged into /eə̯/.
Back vowels undergo allophonic fronting when proceeding the post-alveolar and palatal consonants /ɕ t͡ɕ d͡ʑ ç j ʎ/, resulting in the following changes:
vowel | non-palatalized | palatalized |
---|---|---|
o | [ɔ] | [ɜ] |
wo, uo | [wɔə ʊə̯] | [ɨə̯] |
a | [ʌ] | [ə] |
aa | [ɑ:] | [æ:] |
Following is a chart of all phonemic vowels and allophonic vowels and diphthongs resulting from the allophonic processes described above:
Front | Central | Near-back | Back | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Close | i (iː) | (ɨː) (ɨə̯) (ɨə̯j) (ɨːə̯) |
(uː) (uːə̯) | |
Near-close | (ʊə̯) (ʊə̯j) | |||
Close-mid | (eː) (eːj) eə̯ eə̯w |
(oː) | ||
Mid | (ə) (əː) (əj) (əw) |
|||
Open-mid | ɛ | (ɜ) (ɜj) |
ʌ ɔ ʌj ʌw ɔj wɔə̯ wɔə̯j | |
Near-open | (æː) (æːj) (æːw) |
|||
Open | ɑː ɑːj ɑːw |
Phonotactics
The maximal allowable syllable is CCCCVC, with few restrictions in the sequence of consonants in the onset, but with a heavily restricted coda. When necessary, continuants may be realized as syllabic, and epenthetic schwas may appear between certain consonants, particulary before /ʔ/ when it appears at the beginning of an utterance or between two other stops.
The syllable neucleus must take one and only one vowel.
The coda may be one of five consonants: /m ŋ w j ɻ/. Some of these coda consonants, particularly /w/ and /j/, merge allophonically with the nucleus vowel, slightly obscurring the phonemic constituents of the rhyme.
Orthography
Grammar
Morphology
Nouns Adjectives
Verbs
Verbs in Qgam Dzwo may be broken down into auxiliary verbs and main verbs. Auxiliary verbs appear directly after the subject and conjugate for the number of the subject only, whereas main verbs mark certain aspects only.
Auxiliary Verbs
As described above, auxiliary verbs appear directly after the subject of the clause. There are three types of auxiliaries: tense/aspect, modal, and voice. The voice auxiliaries may occur with tense/aspect and modal auxiliaries, but only one tense/aspect or modal auxiliary may occur in a single clause. There is a certain amount of dialectal variation between auxiliary usage. Following is a full list:
Tense / Aspect Auxiliaries | |||
---|---|---|---|
auxiliary | Western Qgam | Eastern Qgam | Southern Qgam |
得 | do present indicative |
— | — |
𠃐 | — | way present indicative |
— |
已 | ey emphatic indicative |
iy emphatic indicative |
yaa, yaw present indicative |
途 | qaam progressive |
aam progressive | |
了 | wea perfective; past | ||
將 | šruo future |
šro future |
— |
該 | — | — | boy, bwoy future |
𢪽 | yam desiderative/imminent |
yaĝ desiderative/imminent |
yam desiderative/imminent |
其 | çe dummy/default auxiliary | ||
Modal Auxiliaries | |||
auxiliary | Western Qgam | Eastern Qgam | Southern Qgam |
可 | meaĝ potential; abilitative | ||
欲 | mdzaa desiderative | ||
令 | cam adhortative ("should") |
caĝ adhortative ("should") (formal) |
cam necessitative ("must") |
領 | — | çua adhortative ("should") (informal) |
çua adhortative ("should") |
應 | blsa potential (may; might) (formal) |
bsa potential (may; might) |
blsa, bldza potential (may; might) |
bsa potential (may; might) (informal) | |||
要 | jer necessitative ("must") |
— | |
Voice Auxiliaries | |||
auxiliary | Western Qgam | Eastern Qgam | Southern Qgam |
被 | šraa passive | ||
允 | bluo causative |
When auxiliaries of two separate types cooccur, tense/modal auxiliaries come before voice auxiliaries:
那木要不被切落
Qhwam mduo ma jer šraa kar la.
here tree NEG must PASS cut fall
That tree must not be cut down.
As auxiliaries of a single class cannot cooccur, instead, the connecting particle 而 ay is used to link clauses, e.g.:
伊被而允了去
Ĝwa šraa ay bluo wea arna.
3.SG PASS and CAUS PST leave
He was forced to leave.
Main Verbs
Main verbs occur at the end of a clause and conjugate for certain aspects only. This is accomplished either by means of a prefix or reduplication, depending both on the aspect and the specific auxiliary verb used.
The perfect aspect is marked with the prefix 畢 sak- (sometimes reduced to sk- or sĝ-), e.g.:
- 問 tem "ask" → 畢問 saktem
- 靠話 orsra "declare" → 畢靠話 skorsra
- 有 geaw "own" → 畢有 sĝgeaw
The iterative aspect is marked with the prefix 屢 bis- (sometimes reduced to bs-), e.g.:
- 住 sa "dwell" → 屢住 bissa
- 去 arna "leave" → 屢去 bsarna
The progressive aspect is indicated by an auxiliary for the present tense, but in the past and future tenses, it is instead indicated through reduplication of the main verb, e.g.:
- 獲 saa "get" → 獲獲 saa saa
- 離跑 rimbaaĝ "run away" → 離跑離跑 rimbaaĝ rimbaaĝ
圭葉得畢去
Kea Yaw do skarna.
Kea Yaw PRES PERF-leave
Kea Yaw has left.
它了刁券券於賣賣
Ĝwea wiy kyom kyom am ĝea ĝea.
3.PL PST/PL ticket ticket ACC sell sell
They were selling tickets.
Adverbs Particles Derivational morphology
Syntax
Qgam Dzwo employs SOV sentence structure, though an auxiliary is required directly after the subject. This split verb system is believed to be a remnant of an older V2 structure, though in modern Qgam, the auxiliary is not required to appear second in the clause.